Post by depletedreasons on Jun 6, 2008 2:02:16 GMT -5
The fall of Constantinople
The Hagia Sophia was crowded with thousands offering Confession and praying litanies as Ottoman Muslim hordes assaulted the walls of Constantinople. Nonethless, Mehmed II and his armies entered and the rape of Byzantium began.
Thursday, June 05, 2008
By Efthymios Tsiolopoulos
On Tuesday, 29 May 1453 Constantinople, the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire for more than 1,000 years, fell to the Ottoman armies of Mehmed II.
The "City of Constantine" was founded in AD330 by Roman Emperor Constantine I on the site of the ancient Greek city of Byzantium (established around 671-662BC), a strategically and commercially important site lying astride the land route from Europe to Asia and the seaway from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean, with an excellent harbour in the Golden Horn.
During its last days, Constantinople, which had once been perhaps the most splendid city of the mediaeval world, was but a ghost of its former self as in 1204 the troops of the 4th Crusade robbed it of most of its wealth.
The man fate would have at the helm that day was Emperor Constantine XI Paleologus. Constantine was born in Constantinople, the eighth of 10 children of Manuel II Paleologus and Helena Dragas, the daughter of the Serbian prince Constantine of Serres.
In 1451, when Mehmed ascended to the Ottoman throne at the age of 21, the Turks had already made considerable inroads into Europe and held most of the land around Constantinople. Mehmed's capital was Adrianople, eastern Thrace, not far from the Byzantine capital. The young sultan proved a capable diplomat and soldier as he quickly isolated the emperor from his allies to the north and west.
Maniacally intent on capturing the Vasilevousa (the Reigning City), Mehmed began building a fortress on the Bosphorus in April 1452, which complemented another on the Anatolian shore, about six miles south, making the sultan master of the straits.
At the beginning of 1453, the sultan began amassing his army from all parts of his domain on the plain of Adrianople. Estimates vary between 150,000 and 400,000 men; however, fewer than 100,000 were regular soldiers, while the rest were bazi bazukhs (fanatics) or irregulars and wanderers. Mehmed also hired foreign engineers to craft artillery pieces to bring down the city's walls.
Although it soon became clear that a new siege of Constantinople was about to begin, and despite the pleas of Constantine, Venice, Genoa and the Vatican reacted with little fervour. On January 29, two Genoese vessels with 400 men recruited in Genoa and 300 on the Genoese-held island of Hios arrived in the city under the command of Giovanni Giustiniani Longo.
There were no more than 50,000 people in the city when the siege began. The garrison included 5,000 Greeks and about 2,000 foreigners, mostly Genoese and Venetian.
The first assault was launched the night of April 18 but was repulsed after four hours of fighting. On the morning of April 20, three Genoese vessels and a Greek transport under Cretan Captain Flantanellas appeared, loaded with provisions for the city. The next morning, Mehmed ordered the beheading of his admiral and the transportation of his ships overland into the Golden Horn. On April 22 there were 70 Ottoman ships in the Horn.
The sultan, on May 21, called on Constantine to leave for Mystras with his fortune. The emperor replied by saying: "To give you the city is not mine [my right] or of any other of its inhabitants. All in common opinion voluntarily will die and will not save our lives."
Mehmed's position was precarious. The sultan's Vizier Halil Chandarli was against the siege and was feeding Constantine information, while during a May 25 meeting the sultan's advisors told him to raise the siege if the defenders lasted another week. Mehmed, supported by younger commanders, decided to launch a final assault on the city.
The big assault was scheduled for Tuesday 29 May. On Monday some last repairs were done to the walls and the stockades and, under the tolling of church bells, the citizens and soldiers joined a litany behind the holy relics brought out of the churches. The huge church of Agia Sophia was crowded with thousands of people confessing and taking communion. Chroniclers tell of a moving speech by Constantine. He thanked all present for their contribution to the defence of the city and asked them to forgive him.
The assault began at 3am on 29 May 1453 with wave after wave of attackers charging the walls. First came the unskilled irregulars. The battle lasted two hours before the irregulars withdrew in disorder, leaving behind dead and wounded. Next came the Anatolian troops of Ishak Pasha. They fought tenaciously but along a narrow front, and the defenders easily hacked them. Although some managed to breach a gap, they were soon slain.
Then it was the turn of the trained Janissaries. The defenders were by now exhausted. With tremendous effort, they continued repulsing the enemy, but a group of enemy soldiers unexpectedly entered the city from a small sally-port called Kerkoporta, on the wall of Blachernae, and fighting broke out near the small gate.
It was almost day when a shot fired from a culverin hit Giustiniani. Bleeding and exhausted, he asked his men to take him off the battlefield. Seeing Giustiniani leave, nearby soldiers believed the defence line broken. They all rushed through the gate, leaving the emperor and the Greek fighters alone. The Ottoman commanders took advantage of the situation and rushed thousands to the area. Soon the first enemy flags were hoisted. The emperor and his commanders tried to push back the enemy, but it was too late.
Realising everything was lost, the emperor removed his imperial insignia and, followed by his cousin Theophilus Paleologus the Castilian Don Francisco of Toledo, and John Dalmatus, charged into the sea of enemy soldiers in a final act of defiance. They were never seen again. The allied ships were still in the harbour collecting refugees. The Cretan soldiers and sailors were still fighting with no intention of surrendering. In the end, the Turks had to let them sail away with their arms.
The excesses that followed lasted three days. Private homes, shops, monasteries and convents were looted, tenants massacred, and women, boys, girls and even elderly nuns raped. To avoid dishonour, many committed suicide. The great doors of Agia Sophia were forced open, and the soldiers fell upon the worshippers, killing and raping for hours, like in other churches across the city. Thousands of civilians were enslaved. Death and enslavement were meted out to nobles and peasants with equal ruthlessness.
After 27 unsuccessful sieges, the Vasilevousa had fallen a second time and Paleologus passed into legend.
Efthymios Tsiliopoulos writes for the Athens News and appears here with permission.
www.speroforum.com/site/article.asp?id=15422&tag=greece
The Hagia Sophia was crowded with thousands offering Confession and praying litanies as Ottoman Muslim hordes assaulted the walls of Constantinople. Nonethless, Mehmed II and his armies entered and the rape of Byzantium began.
Thursday, June 05, 2008
By Efthymios Tsiolopoulos
On Tuesday, 29 May 1453 Constantinople, the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire for more than 1,000 years, fell to the Ottoman armies of Mehmed II.
The "City of Constantine" was founded in AD330 by Roman Emperor Constantine I on the site of the ancient Greek city of Byzantium (established around 671-662BC), a strategically and commercially important site lying astride the land route from Europe to Asia and the seaway from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean, with an excellent harbour in the Golden Horn.
During its last days, Constantinople, which had once been perhaps the most splendid city of the mediaeval world, was but a ghost of its former self as in 1204 the troops of the 4th Crusade robbed it of most of its wealth.
The man fate would have at the helm that day was Emperor Constantine XI Paleologus. Constantine was born in Constantinople, the eighth of 10 children of Manuel II Paleologus and Helena Dragas, the daughter of the Serbian prince Constantine of Serres.
In 1451, when Mehmed ascended to the Ottoman throne at the age of 21, the Turks had already made considerable inroads into Europe and held most of the land around Constantinople. Mehmed's capital was Adrianople, eastern Thrace, not far from the Byzantine capital. The young sultan proved a capable diplomat and soldier as he quickly isolated the emperor from his allies to the north and west.
Maniacally intent on capturing the Vasilevousa (the Reigning City), Mehmed began building a fortress on the Bosphorus in April 1452, which complemented another on the Anatolian shore, about six miles south, making the sultan master of the straits.
At the beginning of 1453, the sultan began amassing his army from all parts of his domain on the plain of Adrianople. Estimates vary between 150,000 and 400,000 men; however, fewer than 100,000 were regular soldiers, while the rest were bazi bazukhs (fanatics) or irregulars and wanderers. Mehmed also hired foreign engineers to craft artillery pieces to bring down the city's walls.
Although it soon became clear that a new siege of Constantinople was about to begin, and despite the pleas of Constantine, Venice, Genoa and the Vatican reacted with little fervour. On January 29, two Genoese vessels with 400 men recruited in Genoa and 300 on the Genoese-held island of Hios arrived in the city under the command of Giovanni Giustiniani Longo.
There were no more than 50,000 people in the city when the siege began. The garrison included 5,000 Greeks and about 2,000 foreigners, mostly Genoese and Venetian.
The first assault was launched the night of April 18 but was repulsed after four hours of fighting. On the morning of April 20, three Genoese vessels and a Greek transport under Cretan Captain Flantanellas appeared, loaded with provisions for the city. The next morning, Mehmed ordered the beheading of his admiral and the transportation of his ships overland into the Golden Horn. On April 22 there were 70 Ottoman ships in the Horn.
The sultan, on May 21, called on Constantine to leave for Mystras with his fortune. The emperor replied by saying: "To give you the city is not mine [my right] or of any other of its inhabitants. All in common opinion voluntarily will die and will not save our lives."
Mehmed's position was precarious. The sultan's Vizier Halil Chandarli was against the siege and was feeding Constantine information, while during a May 25 meeting the sultan's advisors told him to raise the siege if the defenders lasted another week. Mehmed, supported by younger commanders, decided to launch a final assault on the city.
The big assault was scheduled for Tuesday 29 May. On Monday some last repairs were done to the walls and the stockades and, under the tolling of church bells, the citizens and soldiers joined a litany behind the holy relics brought out of the churches. The huge church of Agia Sophia was crowded with thousands of people confessing and taking communion. Chroniclers tell of a moving speech by Constantine. He thanked all present for their contribution to the defence of the city and asked them to forgive him.
The assault began at 3am on 29 May 1453 with wave after wave of attackers charging the walls. First came the unskilled irregulars. The battle lasted two hours before the irregulars withdrew in disorder, leaving behind dead and wounded. Next came the Anatolian troops of Ishak Pasha. They fought tenaciously but along a narrow front, and the defenders easily hacked them. Although some managed to breach a gap, they were soon slain.
Then it was the turn of the trained Janissaries. The defenders were by now exhausted. With tremendous effort, they continued repulsing the enemy, but a group of enemy soldiers unexpectedly entered the city from a small sally-port called Kerkoporta, on the wall of Blachernae, and fighting broke out near the small gate.
It was almost day when a shot fired from a culverin hit Giustiniani. Bleeding and exhausted, he asked his men to take him off the battlefield. Seeing Giustiniani leave, nearby soldiers believed the defence line broken. They all rushed through the gate, leaving the emperor and the Greek fighters alone. The Ottoman commanders took advantage of the situation and rushed thousands to the area. Soon the first enemy flags were hoisted. The emperor and his commanders tried to push back the enemy, but it was too late.
Realising everything was lost, the emperor removed his imperial insignia and, followed by his cousin Theophilus Paleologus the Castilian Don Francisco of Toledo, and John Dalmatus, charged into the sea of enemy soldiers in a final act of defiance. They were never seen again. The allied ships were still in the harbour collecting refugees. The Cretan soldiers and sailors were still fighting with no intention of surrendering. In the end, the Turks had to let them sail away with their arms.
The excesses that followed lasted three days. Private homes, shops, monasteries and convents were looted, tenants massacred, and women, boys, girls and even elderly nuns raped. To avoid dishonour, many committed suicide. The great doors of Agia Sophia were forced open, and the soldiers fell upon the worshippers, killing and raping for hours, like in other churches across the city. Thousands of civilians were enslaved. Death and enslavement were meted out to nobles and peasants with equal ruthlessness.
After 27 unsuccessful sieges, the Vasilevousa had fallen a second time and Paleologus passed into legend.
Efthymios Tsiliopoulos writes for the Athens News and appears here with permission.
www.speroforum.com/site/article.asp?id=15422&tag=greece